    The Project Gutenberg EBook of Machines at Work, by Mary Elting Folsom

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
    almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
    re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
    with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license

    Title: Machines at Work

    Author: Mary Elting Folsom

    Release Date: September 3, 2017 [EBook #55482]

    Language: English

    Character set encoding: UTF-8

    *** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MACHINES AT WORK ***

    Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan, Chuck Greif
    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
    http://www.pgdp.net

In certain versions of this etext [in certain browsers] clicking on the image will bring up a larger version. Index: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, j, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, v, w. (etext transcriber's note)

{2}

{3}

{4}

Copyright 1953 by Duenewald Printing Corporation.
Lithographed in the United States of America.

{5}

MACHINES AT WORK

{6}

{7}

ILLUSTRATED BY
LASZLO ROTH
GARDEN CITY BOOKS GARDEN CITY, N. Y.

{8}

{9}

## MAN-MADE GIANTS

You could do everything that the machines in this book do. For some of the jobs, of course, you’d have to get friends to help you. But people have always been able to work and build wonderful things, using just their muscles. And they can do a very great deal more when they use their brains, too. They can invent machines to make work thousands of times easier and faster.

The big machine in the picture is a shovel that’s used for digging an enormous hole. In one bite, its scoop can tear out a chunk of earth more than twice as tall as a man. Its long arm, called the boom, lifts the load as high as the top of a seven story building, then swings around and drops it almost a city block away.

There are only a few shovels like this in the world. They were especially made to work where beds of coal lie close to the surface of the earth, covered by a layer of soil. The shovels clear away the soil so that other machines can dig out the coal.

{10}

When a giant shovel has cleared off one spot, its crawlers begin to turn, and it creeps slowly ahead. But it can’t travel on roads. It’s far too big and heavy and tall—so big, in fact, that it came to the mine in separate pieces. Forty-five freight cars were needed to haul all the parts for just one machine from the factory to the mine. Then experts put the parts together right where the shovel was to start digging.

And dig it does. In one minute its scoop can bite out as much dirt as 3,600 men could dig just using their muscles to lift ordinary hand shovels!

The giant shovel is one of the biggest machines ever made, but there’s another that can lift even bulkier things. It is an overhead crane that works in a shipyard.

Often the crane hoists big boilers out of ships so that repair men can work on them. It is so huge that it carries another crane on its back. The piggy-back crane—that’s its real name—reaches down and lifts things off the deck of the ship, too.

Hammering is another kind of muscle work that{11}

{12}

machines can do quickly and easily. Suppose the water pipes under your street need mending. Repair men have to tear up the pavement in order to reach the pipes. So they bring in jack hammers to do the pounding. Strong blasts of air run the hammers, and, in no time, the pavement is broken up.

Crushed rock was used for making the paved street in the first place. It came from a big machine called a rock crusher, which breaks up chunks of stone into small pieces. Strong jaws inside the crusher chew at the stone until they have made it into bits that are just the right size.{13}

An even bigger pounding machine is the pile driver. It can hammer a great thick log down into the ground almost as easily as a man can hammer a nail through a board. One kind of pile driver does its pounding job with a steam piston. Another kind lifts a heavy weight and lets it bang down on top of the log, called a pile. The one in the picture{14} works in a harbor. It drives piles deep into the earth that lies under water. A whole group of piles make the foundation for a pier in the harbor, for ships to tie up alongside.

Harbors and rivers must be kept safe for ships. If mud and sand pile up in a thick layer on the bottom, ships may get stuck. So dredges go to work clearing the mud and sand away. Often a clean-up job takes a long time. The men who run the machinery live on board the dredge, just as sailors live on a ship.

Some dredges have scoops that dig under water. Others, like the one in the picture, use giant suction pumps. The mud or sand they suck up is called spoil.{15}

If there’s hard-caked mud on the bottom, cutter heads break it up. Then it’s ready to be pumped out through huge steel pipes that stretch away from the dredge like a great snake and pour the spoil out on land.

Of course, a dredge must stay in one place while it is working. So it carries along two huge spikes called spuds. These move straight up and down at the stern of the dredge. When they ram into the earth underwater, they keep the dredge from drifting.

A spud is so heavy that it pokes its own hole in the muddy bottom of a river or harbor. But making holes on dry land is a different problem. For instance, you can’t just poke a telephone pole into the hard ground,{16} or pound it in easily with a pile driver, either. So, in many places, a machine bores holes for telephone poles, just the way a carpenter bores a hole with a brace and bit. Then the machine’s long arms reach out, lift a pole into the air and plug it down neatly into place.

Long ago our ancestors discovered how to use simple tools—such as hammers, shovels, crowbars and rollers. These things seem very ordinary to us, but they were really wonderful discoveries. The clever men who invented them were providing ideas, one by one, which scientists and engineers used much later. Our great machines are combinations of many, many things that men discovered from using simple tools.{17}

## POWERFUL PUSHERS

The giant shovel digs; the overhead crane lifts; the pile driver pounds. All machines multiply the power that’s in the muscles of men—or of animals. The pushingest animal is an elephant. In some places in the world, elephants are trained to clear land by putting their foreheads against a tree and heaving until the tree topples over.

A tree-dozer can out-push an elephant. The one in the picture has a special forehead built in front. With a slow, steady shove, it clears the way for roads or opens up fields for farms.

Farmers used to dig their fields by hand. Then they hitched horses to plows. Now a tractor does the work, but we still measure its strength in horsepower.

{18}

## MACHINES FOR FARMERS

Dan is a farmer. He knows how to use almost any kind of farm machine, and he has lots of them. The most important is his tractor, for it is busy all year round. Sometimes it pushes. Sometimes it pulls. Or it may stand still and lend its power to other machinery.

When the frost is out of the soil in the spring, Dan backs his tractor into the tool shed and bolts on a plow. This one is a two-gang plow—it can make two furrows in the earth at the same time. Dan touches a lever. The blades of the plow lift up so they can’t dig into the farmyard and the road, and Dan chugs off to the field. Another touch on the lever sends the blades down. In a few minutes, Dan has made the first furrows across the field.

Now he has to turn. He lifts the plow and steps on the left brake pedal. While the big left wheel stands still, the right one keeps going and turns the tractor, ready to start the next furrows. When Dan wants to stop, he steps on both the left and right brake pedals at once.

After plowing comes harrowing. The tractor pulls a different implement for this job—a whole row of saucer-shaped metal discs that chew up the soil and spread it out evenly. Now Dan is ready to plant corn.{19}

{20}

The corn planter does five jobs in one trip down the field. It makes trenches for two rows of corn. It drops corn seeds into the trenches. It drops fertilizer alongside to give food to the young plants. It covers the seeds. And it leaves a mark all along the field to show exactly where the tractor should go to plant the next row of seeds. Dan follows the mark very carefully. All the rows must be exactly the same distance apart, because the tractor will have to go through the field again to cut out the weeds after the corn starts to grow. If the rows are badly spaced, the tractor wheels will squash some of the plants.

{21}

When Dan was a little boy, he used to help his father hoe the corn by hand, getting rid of weeds and loosening the soil. Now he has an implement called a cultivator which does the job.

After the corn is well up, Dan pulls the cultivator through the field, driving carefully, with the wheels between the rows. Small blades on the cultivator cut through the weeds and break the soil into loose chunks. The pictures show several kinds of cultivator blades.

All summer long the corn grows tall. Dan waits till the ears are dry before he harvests them, ready for his cows and chickens to eat in winter.

Dan’s farm is small, so he can’t afford to buy a big corn-picking machine. But his neighbor Al has one that he rents out, and one morning Dan drives it to his{22} cornfield. His tractor seems lost inside the picking machine. Gatherers that look like the pointed snouts of huge mice creep along in front of the tractor close to the ground. One by one the stalks of corn go into the machine, which snaps the ears off. Then revolving claws and rubber paddles rip off the husks, and an elevator carries the clean ears back to a wagon which the tractor pulls along. In a very short time, Dan’s whole field is done.

Corn isn’t the only thing that grows on Dan’s farm. He raises tomatoes for the market, too. At planting time, he needs two helpers who ride on little seats very close to the ground behind the tractor. They put the tender little tomato plants one by one into a trench which the planting machine digs, and then a special wheel covers the roots with earth.

Dan has some wheat fields, too. In the spring, after the ground is harrowed, a wide planting machine sows many rows of wheat at a time. And it drops out fertilizer to feed the plants on the same trip.

Many farmers use their tractors for harvesting wheat, but Dan doesn’t. Instead, he rents a shiny red{23} reaper which he calls a “package job,” because it moves itself along and does the whole harvesting at once. It cuts the wheat, shakes the grain loose from the stalk and separates it from the husks. If there are weeds growing in the wheat, the machine separates the weed seeds from the wheat kernels and spills them into different bags.

Dan sits high in the air at the front of the machine. He says he has a “box seat.” Behind him on a bench sits{24} a helper who ties the bags as they fill up and puts new bags in place. Dan says it won’t be long before somebody invents a machine that will reap the wheat, grind the flour and bake bread right there in the field!

All of Dan’s machines are wonderful inventions, but they can be dangerous, too, if people are careless. To give himself and his helpers warning, he has painted bright stripes and markers around open places where fingers might get caught in moving parts.

## EGGS, TOO

Dan has a flock of fine white Leghorn chickens. He takes care of them by machinery, for eggs are a crop, too. The hens live in cages with wire floors, so that they keep very clean. All their droppings go through the wire to a platform below. With a special scoop, run by his tractor, Dan cleans the manure from the platform and puts it in a pile to be used as fertilizer on the fields.

Every day the chickens have their meals brought to them on a moving belt. The eggs they lay drop through their nests onto another belt that carries them away. Finally a machine sorts the eggs according to size, ready for packing.

Some farmers raise chickens for the market. Of course, the feathers must be taken off after the chickens have been killed. There are machines for this, too. One{25} kind has mechanical fingers that pluck the feathers as chickens go past on a moving belt.

## MACHINES FOR BIGGER FARMS

Dan’s neighbor Al has a big dairy farm, with lots of cows to milk every day, and land enough to grow their feed. Besides his corn picker, Al has other special machines. One of them cuts corn while it is still green, chops it up fine and loads it into a truck. The truck has a sort of cage over it to keep the corn from spilling out. Next, Al turns his tractor into a stationary engine which{26} runs a blowing machine. A wide belt from a pulley on the tractor turns the blower, which shoots the chopped-up corn to the top of a storage tower called a silo. The green stuff ferments in the silo and turns into wonderful food for the cows.

Al’s fields are so big that he needs larger plows than the one Dan uses. He hires an airplane to spread dust that kills plant-eating insects.

Al plants his hayfields with a seeding machine that he pulls behind the tractor. Grass seed is so tiny that it can’t be planted deep. Al’s seeder sprinkles just the right amount of seed on the soil, and then squeezes a thin covering of earth on top. He says the machine “tucks each seed to bed.”

After the mowing machine has cut the hay, Al pulls his automatic baler across the field. The baler scoops the hay up, then presses it into a box-shaped bundle,{27} slices it off neat and square, and ties it with strong twine. One by one the bales drop out on the field, ready for a truck to pick them up.

Some farmers rake their hay into long heaps called windrows before they bale it. The machine that does this job has many teeth that whirl round and push the hay sidewise into the windrows. The whole field has a rolling look, like ocean waves.

The hay must be dry before it goes into the barn. If it isn’t, it may get moldy. And green hay may even be dangerous. It can actually make heat enough to start a fire.

To be sure his hay keeps well, Al{28} has a blower that circulates air around the barn and dries the bales completely.

Some farmers use machines that tie the hay into round bales. Others don’t bale it at all. They use stackers to pile it into tall stacks where it is kept till the cows are ready to eat it.

The stacker fits onto the tractor. When it was first invented, farmers thought it was a sort of luxury, because{29} it was used so seldom. Then they discovered that they could put it to work on other jobs, too. If a platform of boards is fitted across the forks of the stacker, it turns into an elevator that a man can stand on. Then he can paint the barn or pick apples from high branches without having to climb up and down ladders.

## MILKING MACHINES

It would take a lot of work to milk all of Al’s cows. So he uses milking machines. When a man milks a cow, he squeezes with his fingers. Instead of fingers, the milking machine has four soft rubber funnels that fit over the cow’s teats. A pump squeezes the funnels, presses the milk out and sends it through hoses to the milk can.

A farmer has only two hands. His milking machine has four funnels with hoses. So it can work much faster, and he can have several machines going at once.

You’d never guess it, but a cow is a nervous, fussy animal. She lets down her milk easily if the same person{30} or the same machine squeezes on her teats with the same rhythm every day, but any kind of change or hurry upsets her. Then she’s hard to milk. And so Al’s machine is built with a very accurate timer which makes the funnels squeeze exactly forty-eight times a minute.

A good farmer tries to make life calm and comfortable for his cows. Even the names for some things in Al’s barn have a comfortable sound. The place where the cows wait to be milked is called the loafing pen. The room where they stand for milking is kept perfectly clean, and it’s called the milking parlor.

Before the machine is attached, the cows’ udders and teats must be washed clean. Al has fixed an upside-down shower bath for his cows. He built a concrete pen with sprays coming up through the floor. The showers clean the cows and make them feel so calm that he never has any trouble milking them.

The fanciest milking parlor of all has a machine in it called a Rotolactor. It is really a quiet, slow merry-go-round. Cows amble up a ramp and step into stalls on the gently moving platform. A man attaches milking machines to them, one after the other. By the time each cow has been carried halfway around the big circle, her milk has been pumped out into a glass tank that sits on a rack above her. A man takes off the rubber cups, a{31}

{32}

gate opens in front of the cow, and she steps off onto another ramp that goes from the center of the merry-go-round, underneath it and out to the barnyard. Twenty-five cows at a time can be milked on the Rotolactor.

Automatic gadgets empty the milk from the glass tanks, wash them, sterilize them and get them ready for the next round. All the time men are busy keeping the stalls clean and tending to the machinery. Most dairies milk the cows twice a day, but the Rotolactor milks three times.

## MACHINES FOR EVERY JOB

The Rotolactor was invented for one particular kind of huge dairy. But farmers everywhere like to have good machinery to do special jobs.

For hilly country, there’s a plow that has one of its blades higher than the other so it can work on a slope. There are chisel plows that dig up hard soil by clawing at it with strong steel fingers.

One farmer in Texas decided to make his tractor do the plowing all by itself, after he had driven it once around the field to give it a start. He invented a guide{33}

{34}

wheel that went ahead of the tractor in the furrow he had made. Now the guide led the tractor around in a spiral that got narrower and narrower until at last it stopped in the center of the plowed field. Another{35}

Texan, with a bigger field and more machines, had a larger idea. He set three tractors loose without drivers, one behind the other. Away they went, round and round. If one traveled too fast and caught up with the{36} one ahead, they stopped. The only work he had to do was go out and start them up again!

There have even been experiments in guiding plows by remote control radio, the way airplanes can be guided. The farmer just sits under a tree and pushes buttons in a control box.

## COTTON MEANS HARD WORK

Cotton is a crop that has always taken an enormous amount of work. Even after cultivating machines were invented, men had to go through the fields twice every year and hoe out weeds around the plants by hand. One farmer rigged up a contraption that made hoeing{37} easier. He hitched an air compressor to his tractor and ran hoses from the compressor to four special hoes. Then the escaping air jiggled the hoes in the men’s hands and saved the work of swinging them up and down.

Nowadays some of the big cotton farmers have an easier way of solving the problem. They just keep the weeds from growing in the first place. As the planting machine drops the cotton seeds, it spreads weed killer along each side of the row. This killer is a particular kind of chemical that keeps the weeds from sprouting, but it does not hurt the cotton. The only weeds that grow in the field come up between rows where it’s easy for a cultivator to scratch them under.

At cotton picking time, machines now do the work{38} in many places. Cotton is ready to pick when the little round heads of white fluff called bolls break open. Not all the bolls on one plant burst at the same time. A man who picks by hand can tell by looking which ones are ready. Of course the machine doesn’t have eyes, but its tiny barbed steel fingers catch up only the opened bolls. The fingers are fixed on a turning drum. They pluck the cotton from the plant, carry it around to be pulled off and blown through a big pipe into a large basket behind the driver.

People have been trying for at least a hundred years to invent a perfect cotton picker, and they haven’t succeeded yet. The machines still can’t do as careful a job as skilled men and women can do by hand.

## SPRAYING MACHINES

Nobody could possibly do by hand all of the spraying that protects farmers’ crops. Mechanical sprayers come in many shapes and sizes. The most usual sort for big fields travels along behind a tractor, shooting chemicals out from nozzles in a pipe that is twenty or thirty or even sixty feet wide.

Some of the special sprayers are queer looking machines. One of them has six squirmy arms, bent in different directions so that they get the chemicals underneath leaves and on top as well. The kind that sprays{39} fruit trees pumps chemicals out of twelve pipes at once. It works so hard and fast that farmers call it a cyclone.

Then there is a sprayer that can be used for several different kinds of job. One day the farmer hitches it up to a tank near cattle pens. As the cattle walk down a narrow path between two fences, he sprays them with a chemical that kills bothersome insects. Next day, he may want to paint his fence. So he rigs the machine up differently and shoots paint onto the boards.{40}

## HOME WORK

All of this sounds as if everything that a farmer could need must have been invented by now. The fact is that there are new inventions coming along all the time, and farmers themselves make many of them. Every day in the week some farmer is likely to think up something he needs, then go to work making it. Here is a sample:

Many farmers specialize in raising a kind of corn called hybrid corn. In order to make it grow properly, they must pick the tassels off the tops of some of the corn plants. Each tassel has to be picked by hand, and it’s a slow job in a big field. So{41} one farmer rigged up a machine that gives four tassel-pickers a comfortable ride all at the same time, and it gets the job done much more than four times as fast as before.

## WONDERFUL INVENTIONS

It would take a whole book just to list the other machines that help different kinds of farmers. But here are some that are fun to know about:

One clever contraption attached to a tractor grabs hold of nut trees and gives them a hard shaking. The nuts fall on the ground, ready for a kind of giant vacuum sweeper to come and suck them into a truck.{42}

Crops that grow underneath the earth need their own sort of harvesting machine. There are potato diggers and many others. The sugar beet digger works in a particularly clever way. Machine fingers feel for the beet tops. They set off a knife which cuts the tops off while other fingers lift the beet out and put it on an elevator which removes the clods of dirt as it travels. Once in a while the machine makes a mistake and delivers a stone, or a chunk of mud at the end of the elevator. Men do nothing but throw the junk away and let the beets slide into the truck that travels alongside.

A farmer always has to keep an eye on what his implements are doing, unless he has a helper who rides along on machines like this big reaper. When the tractor{43}

{44}

pulls a cultivator or a planter, the driver must turn his head often to see how the work is going. For a long time, farmers complained that this was a pain in the neck, and they really meant that their necks hurt from turning so much. Some of them actually went back to using horses, because they could either walk or sit behind horse-drawn machines. So the farm machine makers had to change as many of the machines as they could, placing them beside the tractor or out in front where the driver can watch what is going on.

Tractors themselves come in many sizes and shapes. Some are built very high off the ground so they can pass over tall crops without hurting the plants. Some have four wheels that can be pushed close together for work in one field and pulled wide apart for work in another. Some have three wheels.

Mostly, farmers buy tractors the way people buy automobiles. They pick a model they happen to like and then argue that it’s the best in the world. Of course, a little light “cub” tractor is easier to handle than a big one, but it can’t do the hard work of a heavy model with huge rear wheels and tires. And here’s something about the tires—farmers often fill them with water instead of air to give them more weight when they grip the ground. In winter, these farmers must put antifreeze{45} not only in the radiator but in the tires as well!

On enormous farms where very heavy work must be done, there are often crawler tractors to do it. Instead of tires they have caterpillar treads that give a better grip on the ground. Then they can pull a whole string of plows the way you see them in the picture, staggered out behind.

This kind of tractor was first named caterpillar by only one manufacturer. But people liked the idea, and they began to call all crawlers caterpillars.

A caterpillar is powerful enough to push a snow plow, too. Or it can bulldoze out a hole for a watering pond or a cellar for a new building.{46}

## BUILDING MACHINES

Charlie is the man who can tell you about driving a caterpillar tractor. He works in a city, helping to put up big buildings, and he knows how to use other construction machines, too. In fact, Charlie grew up with machines, for his father and his uncles and his grandfather were construction workers. It often happens that families pass along their knowledge of building from the older to the younger men, and they are very proud of their skills. Charlie uses the caterpillar tractor with a bulldozer blade to push heaps of earth and rock into a pile, ready for the shovel to load on a truck.

{47}

{48}

People often call the shovel a “steam shovel,” but that’s not its right name. You hardly ever see a real steam shovel any more. Years ago the big digging machines were driven by regular steam engines. Before they could start to work on a job, the men had to build a fire in the boiler and wait until they had enough steam pressure to make the shovel go. Of course, this wasted a lot of time. So, when very strong gasoline and Diesel engines came along, builders began using them for their shovels instead of steam engines.

Many shovels and other construction machines ride to work on long gooseneck trailers. They travel faster that way than they could on their own crawlers. And, in cities, the caterpillar treads might damage the pavement. To load and unload a shovel, the operator sets a short ramp of heavy planks against the trailer. Then the shovel creeps up and down on its own crawlers.

The kind of shovel that’s used on a job depends upon the work that must be done. If a basement has to{49} be dug through hard rocky earth, Charlie may operate a crowd shovel, which crawls down into the hole. The shovel has a heavy dipper with teeth along the rim. When it digs, it crowds its teeth down into the ground. Charlie, sitting inside the cab, called the house, swings the dipper outward and up, then dumps the load into a truck.

Another shovel digs in the opposite way. It’s called a pull shovel. The teeth dig down and toward the driver. It can work from a bank and doesn’t have to go down inside the hole at all.

Sometimes Charlie uses a crane to get loose earth out of a hole. The crane has a long boom with wheels at the tip. Cables run over the wheels. Charlie fastens a kind of bucket called a clamshell to the cables. With its mouth open, the clamshell drops down over a heap of rocks and earth. Then Charlie starts machinery that pulls up on the cable. The jaws of the clamshell squeeze together and come up with a load of earth. Now Charlie{50} swings the whole crane around till the clamshell is hanging above a truck. He pulls a cable that opens the bucket, and the earth and stone tumble out.

After the basement for a building has been dug, Charlie uses the crane for other jobs. Men hook the cables to heavy steel beams, and Charlie lifts them into position.

No matter what he is doing, he has a lot to watch out for. He must know which of four brake pedals to{51} use at any moment and which of four hand levers to pull. One lever works the turntable which swings the whole house around. One moves the boom up and down. The other two control the cables.

At the same time, Charlie must watch what’s going{52} on outside. A man stands on the job giving signals. Thumbs up mean “Take the boom up.” Thumbs down mean “Lower the boom.” When the signal man points up with his first finger, it means “Raise the cable.” If he wiggles the finger, it means “faster.” When Charlie is lifting a beam and has to hold it for a while in the air, he says he “takes a strain and dogs it off.” Dogging is his word for setting the brake on the cable.

Things are always likely to fall around a construction job, so the men who work on the ground have steel caps in their shoes to protect their toes. They wear steel helmets on their heads, too!

As the building goes up, Charlie’s crane lifts loads higher and higher. After a while he has to put a jib on the boom. This is an extension that makes it longer. When the building goes too high for his crane to reach, Charlie works another crane. It sits on top of the building’s framework and reaches down from there.

After Charlie lifts a big steel girder into position, other men bolt it in place then fasten it tight with{53} rivets. A man called a heater gets the rivets red-hot in a fire. Using tongs, he tosses them one at a time to the catcher who reaches for them—not with a mitt but with a kind of cup. The catcher pokes a rivet in a hole, and two other men fasten it tight. One of them, the bucker, holds the rivet in position with a bar, and the rivet man pounds the other end flat with a rivet gun. (The gun works like a jack hammer, and it makes an awful racket.)

When you’re down in the street, it’s hard to realize that there may be a heavy wind blowing across the bare girders of a tall new building. High in the air, men have to keep their balance on narrow places and walk with sure feet. There are families who specialize in work far above the solid ground. Boys learn from their fathers how to walk safely without being afraid—although almost everyone is frightened at first. And, of course, everyone is careful. In New York a group of Mohawk Indians have worked on many high buildings where men like Charlie did the beginning work.

{54}

Once in a while Charlie helps to wreck an old building before putting up a new one. First, a crew of men go in and take away everything that can be used again or sold for junk. With specially made crowbars, they pry away floors and door frames. They take out furnaces and plumbing fixtures. Then Charlie gets to work with his crane. At the end of a cable he fastens a heavy steel ball, called a skull cracker. Then,{55}

{56}

swinging the boom, he bashes the skull cracker into the wall of the old building. Over and over, the ball strikes the mortar and bricks. Cracks spread, and big chunks of the wall start tumbling to the ground. In a little while Charlie and his machine have made a heap of rubble out of a house that it took dozens of men to put up.

## BUILDING A ROAD

Once Charlie worked on a road-building job. There he used a crane and a shovel and many other machines besides. This particular road had to cross a big swamp near the ocean. So the first problem was to fill up the swamp with something solid. In order to get enough earth and rock for the fill, men would have had to tear{57} down a whole mountain. Instead they called in suction dredge machinery for the job. The huge pumps sucked sand from the bottom of the sea and poured it through pipes onto the swampy ground. When the water drained away, millions of tons of fine white sand were left.

Charlie helped level the sand off with a bulldozer. Then he moved on to a place where a hilly spot had to be leveled. There he drove a carrying scraper, a machine with a scoop between its front wheels and its rear wheels. The sharp scoop scraped up a load of earth, and Charlie drove off to dump it in a low spot. When he got there, a pusher blade at the back of{58} the scoop pushed the earth out. Round and round he went, without having to stop for loading or unloading.

Other men used a different machine like the one in the picture. This earth mover carried more in one load than the motor scraper, and it was better for hauling earth longer distances. For very short hauls, Charlie drove a fast little tractor. At least it looked small compared to the giant machines. It pushed a scoop in front of it like a shovel, then lifted a load, turned swiftly and dumped the earth where it was needed a few yards away.

Charlie’s road was going to be a special highway for speedy traffic. In order to make it as safe as possible, the crossroads had to be lifted up over the new highway. Crews of men built these overpasses. First they used the huge earth-moving machines to make little hills on each side of the highway. Then they built bridges of concrete and steel between the hills.

At one place, there were two houses on the exact spot where the hill for an overpass had to be made. Instead of tearing the houses down, moving men just carried them away with the furniture still inside. First they raised the houses off the ground with jacks. Next a tractor backed a wide, low trailer up close to each house. Using special machinery and rollers, the men{59}

{60}

eased the whole building onto the trailers. That same night, the houses were set down on new foundations, and the people went right on living in them.

At one place, a big ledge of rock was in the way of the new road. Men called powder monkeys blasted the ledge to smithereens with explosive. Then Charlie came in with his caterpillar tractor and a rock rake. Unlike a garden rake, which you pull, Charlie’s rock rake scratched up rocks and pushed them ahead of it. He shoved all the loose chunks of stone away, but several big ones were too far underground for the rake to pry them loose. So Charlie put a ripper on behind his tractor.

{61}

The ripper had strong prongs that could dig down deep and get a good hold on a boulder. The frame that held the prongs was hollow. For very heavy work, Charlie filled the hollow frame with sand to give it a lot of weight so the prongs wouldn’t slip. To pry out the very largest boulders, Charlie sometimes got another driver to hitch his caterpillar onto the ripper. Then the two tractors, chugging together, did the job.

After the bulldozers and scrapers and rakes had built a rough bed for the highway, Charlie helped to smooth it down and get it all ready for finishing. He used a long six-wheel motor grader for the job.

The motor grader had its Diesel engine in the rear,{62} above the four wheels that did the pushing. The guiding wheels were way off at the front, and in between was the scraping blade, placed where Charlie could watch it.

Charlie could set the blade at almost any angle, just as a barber can tilt a long-bladed razor. And Charlie was proud of the way he had left the road almost as smooth as a barber leaves a man’s face.

Charlie could play tricks with the motor grader’s front wheels, too. Besides steering them in the ordinary way, he often made them lean over toward the right or the left. To look at them, you’d think they were broken, but they were only tilting to do a special job. They were actually in a tug-of-war with the blade and{63} the earth it was pushing. The weight of the earth against the blade pulled the grader toward one side. But the leaning of the wheels pulled in the opposite direction. So the two pulls balanced each other. Charlie could guide the grader in a straight line without having a wrestling match with his steering wheel.

Charlie leaned his wheels when the grader went around a bend in the road, too. They helped the long machine to turn easily. If he had to back into a ditch,{64}

he didn’t worry. The great wheels adjusted themselves to the sloping earth. All six wheels stayed on the{65} ground, and the machine never got hung up the way a four-wheeled automobile would.

When the earth had been smoothed down, it was time to put the hard surface on. Trucks brought in crushed rock to make a solid bed. Concrete mixers covered the rock with concrete. And asphalt spreaders put a coat of asphalt on top.

Wherever the asphalt wasn’t spread evenly, men with rakes finished the job by hand. Then came the tandem roller to pack it down and make the surface smooth.

A Diesel engine moved the roller’s great weight quickly back and forth over the asphalt. In no time the road was as smooth as a table top. If the driver wanted{66} to, he could turn his seat sideways. Then he could easily see whether he was guiding the roller straight forward and straight back.

Many people call road rollers “steam rollers.” That’s because the first ones really were driven by steam engines. Men have a lot less fuss and bother with a modern Diesel-engined tandem. There’s no need to start the fire or shovel coal to keep steam up. You can still see some steam rollers at work, though, because they are strong machines that last a long time. But when one wears out, it is replaced with a modern roller.

After the roller finished smoothing all the asphalt down, Charlie’s road was ready for traffic, but the job still wasn’t quite done. All along the highway the machines had left bare banks of earth. These had to be protected from the weather—just the way a house is protected with a coat of paint. The best coat for the{67} earth is grass of one kind or another. So Charlie turned gardener. In some places he used the motor grader again to prepare the soil so that seed could be planted. With the blade of his grader hung away out at the side and pointed up in the air, he smoothed off the steep banks. Running along the edge of the road, he filled in the soft shoulders.

Then a seed-planter sowed the grass. And finally Charlie used the strangest machine of all. It chugged and puffed and spit out great mouthfuls of hay, which fell over the newly-planted grass! The hay protected the grass seed and kept it moist until its roots were growing strongly in the soil.

## MORE ROAD WORK

The road was finished now, but some of the machines still had work ahead of them. In fact, road work is never ended.{68}

All summer long, tractors pull mowing machines beside the highways, cutting the grass. Brush and small trees must be kept cleared away so that drivers can see ahead. In winter, the motor graders and the snow plows can keep the road clear. But in places where heavy snow piles up into drifts, caterpillar tractors often push special snow plows that eat through the drifts with powerful whirling blades. With one motion these plows dig out the snow and throw it off to one side of the road.

The caterpillar treads work better in snow than wheels with tires. So the “cats” are used all winter long in the Far North. There they even pull whole trailer trains on runners. The one in the picture is hauling{69} Muskeg schooners, which are really trailer houses on sleds. Muskeg is an Indian word for swamp. The cats pull the schooners over frozen, snow-covered swamps.

You may wonder why anyone wants to use a trailer home in the roadless wastes of the Far North. The fact is that men work there the year round, prospecting for oil. When they think they have located oil there or anywhere else, well-drilling machinery goes to work.

## DRILLING MACHINES

Everybody knows that oil wells and derricks go together. The tall derrick towers are needed to hoist drilling equipment in and out of the hole.

When men start to drill a well, they fasten a cutting tool, called a bit, to a piece of pipe which hangs upright{70} in the derrick. Machinery turns the whole thing round and round, so that the bit grinds down into the earth. When one length of pipe, called a joint, has almost disappeared into the hole, men screw another joint onto the top of it. Now the engine turns the double-length pipe, and the bit digs down deeper.

Men, working on the floor and high up in the derrick, hoist more and more joints into position and screw them together as the bit goes on down. After a while, the bit gets dull. A new one must be put on. So, strong cables that run over wheels at the top of the derrick begin lifting the whole string of pipe out. Joint by joint, they unscrew the pipe and stack it out of the way. When the last joint comes up, men change the bit. Then back the pipe goes, joint after joint, into the hole.

Wells must often be drilled more than two miles deep before the bit breaks through into an underground reservoir of oil. That means that the string of drilling pipe must be two miles long. The machines that help to handle it are very strong, but on many rigs, men have to use their own muscles a great deal, too.

For deep drilling, the most modern rigs have a lot of fine new machinery. Automatic tongs take a tight grip on the drilling pipe when it is being unscrewed. Men used to work the tongs by hand. Mechanical hands{71}

{72}

now keep the bottom joints from dropping back into the hole, and arms high up in the derrick do the job of stacking the pipe.

The skillful men who work with the pipes and the machinery call themselves roughnecks. The driller is the one who actually controls the drilling pipe. He never says he is digging a well. He says he is “making hole.”

Almost all deep wells are now drilled by the turning pipe and bit, which are called a rotary rig. But sometimes you can see an old-fashioned cable rig at work. It makes hole with a bit that pounds its way down into earth and rock. A cable raises the bit, and then lets it fall down with a bang that chips away a hole. On both{73} kinds of rig, the hole is cleaned out with water. The water turns the rock dust into mud, which is then pumped out.

The cable rig idea is about two thousand years old! That long ago Chinese drillers made water wells, salt wells and even oil wells. The picture shows what one of these ancient rigs was like.

Look first of all at the long board attached to the rope that goes up over a roller and down into the well. Then look at the platform behind the board. Men jumped from this platform down onto the board. That jerked on the rope and pulled the drilling bit up in the well hole. When a man jumped off the board, the bit fell down and chipped away some rock. Round and round a whole crew of men raced, jumping onto the board and climbing back onto the platform as fast as they could. Still it took a long time to drill a well—sometimes as long as ten years.

Now look at the big wheel turned by a bull at the right. This wheel lifted the pipe made of hollow bamboo{74} that you see at the left. The pipe was actually a bailer. Every once in a while the men poured water into the hole, let the bailer down and hauled up mud. Then the bit could go on drilling. Oil workers today still call the wheel which winds up cable “the bull wheel.”

## PIPELINE MACHINES

When a well brings in oil, a new group of men and machines go to work. They lay a pipeline, through which the oil can be pumped to factories called refineries. Some pipelines are hundreds of miles long.

After surveyors have decided just where the line should go, bulldozers clear away brush, push over trees, heave big boulders to one side, making a wide pathway across country. In many places, the pathway is good enough for trucks to follow. They bring in lengths of pipe and lay them down end to end. Where the going is rough, a caterpillar tractor carries the pipe, one length at a time, hanging from a side-boom.

Now welding crews go to work fastening the ends of the pipe-lengths together. When they have finished, the “hot-dope gang” comes along. They are men who cover the pipe with a wrapping and then with a hot asphalt mixture to protect the metal.

Meantime, a wonderful machine called a trencher has been at work. This is a cat attached to a rig which{75}

{76}

{77}

looks very much like an old-fashioned water wheel. Each bucket on the wheel has steel teeth. The cat turns the wheel and pulls it forward. The buckets scoop up earth, and spill it out onto a belt that dumps it in a heap at one side. The trencher plugs ahead, uphill and down, digging a ditch just the right width and depth.

Following behind the trencher, cats with booms hoist up the snaky pipeline and ease it over into the trench. Finally, bulldozers backfill the trench. That is, they cover the pipe with the dirt that the trencher left alongside. On one job, the men had to work at top speed in the desert and in rocky, mountainous country. They were all so glad they’d finally succeeded in getting the pipeline built that they put on a celebration. Whooping and hollering, they tossed their sweat-stained hats into the trench in front of the bulldozer as it backfilled the last few feet of earth.

Even after that there was one more tool that had work to do before oil could be pumped through their pipeline. It is a peculiar gadget that looks like a bunch of cowboy spurs hooked up with pieces of tin can and some old plates. The weird contraption is called the go-devil, and it has the job of traveling, perhaps hundreds of miles, inside the pipe, pushing out anything{78} that could clog the line. Water pumped into the line behind the go-devil forces it through the pipe.

In one line, the go-devil brought out chunks of wood, pieces of rock—and several rabbits, skunks and rattlesnakes that had decided the pipe would make good headquarters! Now the powerful pumps could go to work shoving oil through the line.

## MINING MACHINERY

Oil pumps today are much better and stronger than the first pumps ever built, but they are direct descendants of the ones that were invented for use in English coal mines long ago. In fact, those early pumps were the great-granddaddies of all modern machines.

{79}

{80}

Coal miners in England had dug so far beneath the surface of the earth that the shafts and tunnels were in danger of filling up with water. Neither manpower nor the power of horses hitched to pumps could do the tremendous job of keeping the mines dry. Something much stronger was needed. In order to find a new kind of power, inventors began experimenting with steam. The first workable steam engines were made to pump out coal mines more than two hundred years ago.

After a while steam engines began to pull trains over rails and drive ships through the water. They ran threshing machines on farms. Then inventors used their new knowledge about power to make other kinds of engines driven by gasoline or electricity or oil.

At last some of this new machinery began to work its way back into the mines. Power driven elevators carried the men up and down shafts to their work. But{81} the miners still did all the coal digging and loading by hand.

Today many miners use power-driven drills for digging. Mechanical loaders pick up the loose coal and put it into small cars on the tracks in the tunnel. A little electric locomotive pulls the cars away to the elevator which hoists them up above ground.

The most remarkable digger of all is the one you’ll see on the next page. It rolls along a track deep underground until it comes to the place where its operator wants to cut coal. He pushes a control, and the machine’s long neck reaches up. The cutting head, at the end of the neck, starts biting into the coal. The head does its work much faster and easier than men with hand tools ever could.

Outside the mine, machines sort the coal according to size and load it into railroad cars.{82}

{83}

Unloading machinery empties the cars in many places, too. There’s one coal yard where a woman, pushing buttons, controls machines that do everything—unload cars, store the coal according to its size in tall bins, and load the trucks that will deliver it to customers. This is how the yard works:

Each railroad car empties its coal in a stream onto a moving belt. The belt carries the coal to a machine called a giraffe, which works like an escalator. The giraffe lifts the coal into a tall hopper.

The woman who runs the coal yard sits in an office with a big window, where she can look out and see everything that’s going on. When a truck has backed up to a hopper, ready to load, she pushes a button. Coal drops down out of the hopper onto another giraffe which lifts it into the body of the truck. As soon as the truck is filled, push goes a button and the loading stops.{84}

## LOADERS, LIFTERS AND SUCH

Moving belt machines work at other jobs, too. They load sand into trucks and cargo into ships.

On some piers, huge vacuum cleaners empty ships full of sugar or wheat. At ports on the Great Lakes, machines reach down into ore-carrying ships and unload them with great speed. At the end of each of these unloaders hangs a clamshell bucket. Just above the bucket is a little room where a man sits and watches what goes on. He signals to the operator, telling him just where to drop the bucket so it can pick up a mouthful of ore. The ship can be unloaded by two men who do nothing but signal to each other and push levers. But usually there are several machines working at the same time so that the job goes as quickly as possible.

When iron ore has been turned into steel bars or wheels or gears, another kind of lifter can handle them. This one does its work with a huge electro-magnet that holds heavy weights when electricity is running through it. The operator drops the magnet onto the load of iron or steel that he wants to lift. Then he turns on the electricity which makes the magnet and the piece of metal stick together. The operator moves the load wherever it is supposed to go. Then he turns off the electricity. The magnet lets loose and is ready for another job.{85}

## MACHINES FOR LUMBER, TOO

Machines dug and loaded and delivered the coal that keeps your house warm. Machines helped cut the lumber that went into building your house, too.

Far out in the woods, power-driven saws sliced quickly through the trunks of great trees. Caterpillar tractors hauled the logs out along rough forest trails.

Perhaps the cats, using booms, lifted the logs onto extra-long trailers behind trucks and started them on the way to the sawmill. Or the cats may have snaked the logs to a river so they could float downstream to a sawmill.

{86}

No matter how the logs reached the sawmill, they were put at last onto belts which pushed them against huge whirling saws. A whole set of saws, all whining and screaming at once, turned the thick log into boards. Other machines planed the boards to make them smooth and then cut them to exactly the right sizes. Finally lift-trucks picked up great piles of board at once, whizzed them away and hoisted them elevator-fashion into high stacks.

{87}

{88}

## BRAIN POWER

The operators of most machines sit where they can see what they are doing, or where they can get signals from helpers. But there is one that does things in a new way. Its operator just watches television in his cab. He never sees the parts of his machine at work. Instead, he{89} looks at the television screen. A television camera on the roof of the building photographs what is going on below. This is what the eye of the camera sees: One machine that gathers up pieces of scrap metal and dumps them into a squeezer; the squeezer that presses the scraps into neat bundles; a conveyor that loads the bundles into a railroad car.

The operator watches the moving picture. Then he pushes levers that control the loaders and other levers that send a car on its way when it is full. The only thing he can’t do is switch on a regular TV program and watch a show while he works!

The time may come when people who operate other kinds of machines will find television helpful in many ways. Meantime, scientists who know how television works also know how to make the most wonderful machines of all. Instead of saving muscle-power, these machines save brain-power. They solve very complicated mathematical problems at lightning speed. In{90} fact, they are called “thinking machines.” They add, subtract, multiply, divide and do figuring that many college professors can’t even do.

Partly for fun, and partly to discover new things, the thinking-machine experts have also invented mechanical animals. They’ve made turtles that can walk all around a room without bumping into anything. They’ve made a little wire-whiskered mechanical mouse that can actually sniff about until it finds something it is supposed to find—just the way a real mouse sniffs out a piece of cheese. The machine-mouse even “remembers” where it went, and it runs straight to its cheese the next time.

The machines you’ve read about in this book are mostly outdoor machines, operated by one man or a small crew of men. These are only a few of the marvellous inventions that you can find at work every day. Of course, there are hundreds and thousands of others in factories, making cloth, shaping automobile parts, printing books, doing the important work the world needs done. But, no matter how marvellous and complicated they are, they will never be as wonderful as the men who have invented them and built them and used them. When we talk about machines, we’re really talking about people.{91}

## FUNNY NAMES

Some machines resemble animals in the way they look or the things they do, and so they have animal names. Besides the caterpillar with its crawler treads and the crane with its long neck, here are some others:

ALLIGATOR GRAB—a tool used to pick up things that get dropped into oil well holes.

CAMEL-BACK CRANE—this one has a hump in its boom.

FISHTAIL BIT—a drilling tool which is shaped like a fish’s tail.

KANGAROO PLOW—a plow equipped with strong springs so it can hop over rocks or tree stumps, instead of getting caught on them.

SHEEP’S FOOT TAMPER—a heavy road roller with spikes that pack earth down, the way a flock of sheep does.

WORM LOADER—a long screw that twists round and round to push its load along.

{92}

## INDEX

a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, j, l, m, n, o, p, r, s, t, v, w.

airplane duster, 26
asphalt spreader, 65
bailer, 34
baler, automatic, 26-27
beet digger, 42
bit, 69
blower, 28
boom, 9, 49, 51, 55, 74, 85
“box seat,” 22
bucker, 53
bulldozer, 45, 55, 57, 61, 67, 74, 77
bull wheel, 73, 74
cable rig, 72
catcher, 53
caterpillar, 45, 46, 60, 67, 68, 74, 77, 85
cats, 68
cement mixer, 65
chicken picker, 24-25
Chinese drillers, 73-74
chisel plow, 32
clamshell, 49, 84
coal digger, 81
coal loaders, 81
coal mining, 9, 78-83
corn cutter, 25
corn picking machine, 21
corn planter, 19
cotton picker, 37-38
cotton planter, 37
crane, 10, 49-52, 54, 85
crawler tractor, 45
crawlers, 10, 48, 49
crowd shovel, 49
“cub” tractor, 44
cultivator, 21
cutter heads, 15
cutting head, 81
cyclone, 39
derrick, 69
Diesel engine, 47
dipper, 49
“dogging,” 52
dredges, 14-15
driller, 72
driverless plow, 32-35
earth mover, 58
egg machinery, 24
egg sorter, 24
electro-magnet, 84
escalators, 83-84
farm machines, 18-45
giraffe, 83
go-devil, 77-78
gooseneck trailer, 48
grader, 61-64
grass planter, 26
harrow, 18
hay baler, 26-27
hay blower, 67
hay rake, 27
hay stacker, 28-29
heater, 53
hoe, compressed air, 36, 37
“hot-dope gang,” 74
house, 49
house moving, 58
jackhammers, 12
jib, 52
joint, 70
lumbering machinery, 85-86
magnet crane, 84
“making hole,” 72
manure scoop, 24
mechanical mouse, 89
milking machine, 29-32
mining, machinery 78-83
motor grader, 61-64, 67
motor scraper, 57
mowing machine, 26
Muskeg schooner, 69
nut harvester, 41
oil wells, 69-74
ore unloaders, 84
overhead crane, 10
“package job,” 22
piggy-back crane, 10
pile driver, 13
pipelines, 74-78
plow, 17, 18, 32, 33, 34, 35
post-hole digger, 16
potato digger, 42
powder monkey, 60
power shovel, 47-48
pull-shovel, 49
pumps, 78-80
reaper,{93} 22, 42
rig, 70
ripper, 61
rivet gun, 53
rivet man, 53
road building machines, 55-68
rock crusher, 12
rock rake, 60
rotary rig, 72
rotolactor, 30-32
roughnecks, 72
scraper, 61
seed planter, 67
shovel, 9, 47-48, 49
signals, 52, 84, 88
silage blower, 26
skull cracker, 54
snow plow, 45, 67
spraying machines, 38-39
spud, 15
squeezer, 89
steam engines, 80
steam roller, 66
steam shovel, 47-48
suction dredge, 57
tandem roller, 65
tassel picker, 40-41
television, 88, 89
“thinking machines,” 89
tomato planter, 22
tongs, 70
tractor, 17, 18, 44, 45, 58, 61
trailer houses, 69
tree-dozer, 17
tree-shaker, 41
trencher, 74-77
turntable, 51
turtle, 89
two-gang plow, 18
vacuum unloaders, 84
welding crew, 74
well drilling, 69-74
wheat planting machine, 22
windrower, 27
wrecker, 54

The author and the artist wish to thank the following for their help in making this book possible: Miss Elsie Eaves, Manager, Business News Department, Engineering News-Record; Margaret Gossett; Mr. Harold Spitzer; The Lamp, published by the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey); the Caterpillar Corp.; the General Motors Corp., the New Jersey Bell Telephone Co.; the Florida Land Clearing Equipment Co.; the Walker-Gordon Laboratory Co.; the many manufacturers of digging, road-building and other specialized machines; a bumper crop of tractor and farm implement makers; and farmer friends who proudly showed their equipment in action.

{94}

$1.50

MACHINES
AT WORK

By Mary Elting

Illustrated by Laszlo Roth

There are machines to dig, to hammer, to push—to do every kind of heavy job and to make work thousands of times easier and faster.

On farms, in the mines, in cities where huge buildings are built and out in the woods where powerdriven saws slice through great trees, many kinds of special machines do many kinds of remarkable jobs.

Can you imagine a giant shovel so huge that it took 45 freight cars to haul it from factory to mine? Do you know that there is a machine that plucks the feathers off chickens, ones that pick corn, dig potatoes? Inventors of machines work on everything—they even had fun making a mechanical mouse that can sniff about until it finds a piece of “cheese” and then “remember” and run straight to it next time!

As marvelous and complicated as all these machines are, the author points out that no inventions will ever be as wonderful as the men who invented them—and the men who make them work.

You will find this book an exciting companion to TRAINS AT WORK, SHIPS AT WORK, TRUCKS AT WORK.

Garden City Books
Garden City, New York

{95}

TRUCKS AT
WORK

By Mary Elting

Illustrated by Ursula Koering

This is a book about the sort of trucks that you see every day, as well as the most wonderful out-of-the-way trucks that you may not yet have discovered. It tells of city trucks, with their endless and fascinating cargoes, trucks that help on the farm, and trucks that rumble along the country roads hauling anything from horse-stables to houses.

The author also tells you how the drivers arrange their routes, and how they learned to foil hijackers—and the pictures will tell you just as much as the text. You can see how a truck is loaded so that nothing gets smashed or spoilt; and how a truck Roadeo tests the skill of the men who drive the huge trailer rigs. There is lots of fun here besides useful information.

Garden City Books
Garden City, New York

{96}

    End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Machines at Work, by Mary Elting Folsom

    *** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MACHINES AT WORK ***

    ***** This file should be named 55482-h.htm or 55482-h.zip *****
    This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
            http://www.gutenberg.org/5/5/4/8/55482/

    Produced by Stephen Hutcheson, Dave Morgan, Chuck Greif
    and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
    http://www.pgdp.net

    Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions
    will be renamed.

    Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no
    one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation
    (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without
    permission and without paying copyright royalties.  Special rules,
    set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to
    copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to
    protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark.  Project
    Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you
    charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission.  If you
    do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the
    rules is very easy.  You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose
    such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
    research.  They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do
    practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks.  Redistribution is
    subject to the trademark license, especially commercial
    redistribution.

    *** START: FULL LICENSE ***

    THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
    PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

    To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free
    distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work
    (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project
    Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project
    Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at
    http://gutenberg.org/license).

    Section 1.  General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm
    electronic works

    1.A.  By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm
    electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to
    and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
    (trademark/copyright) agreement.  If you do not agree to abide by all
    the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy
    all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession.
    If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the
    terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or
    entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

    1.B.  "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark.  It may only be
    used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who
    agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement.  There are a few
    things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works
    even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.  See
    paragraph 1.C below.  There are a lot of things you can do with Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement
    and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
    works.  See paragraph 1.E below.

    1.C.  The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation"
    or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic works.  Nearly all the individual works in the
    collection are in the public domain in the United States.  If an
    individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are
    located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from
    copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative
    works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg
    are removed.  Of course, we hope that you will support the Project
    Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by
    freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of
    this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with
    the work.  You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by
    keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project
    Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others.

    1.D.  The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern
    what you can do with this work.  Copyright laws in most countries are in
    a constant state of change.  If you are outside the United States, check
    the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement
    before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or
    creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project
    Gutenberg-tm work.  The Foundation makes no representations concerning
    the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United
    States.

    1.E.  Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

    1.E.1.  The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate
    access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently
    whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the
    phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project
    Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed,
    copied or distributed:

    This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
    almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
    re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
    with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org/license

    1.E.2.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived
    from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is
    posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied
    and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees
    or charges.  If you are redistributing or providing access to a work
    with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the
    work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1
    through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the
    Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or
    1.E.9.

    1.E.3.  If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted
    with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
    must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional
    terms imposed by the copyright holder.  Additional terms will be linked
    to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the
    permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

    1.E.4.  Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm
    License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this
    work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm.

    1.E.5.  Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this
    electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
    prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
    active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
    Gutenberg-tm License.

    1.E.6.  You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
    compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any
    word processing or hypertext form.  However, if you provide access to or
    distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than
    "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version
    posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org),
    you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a
    copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon
    request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other
    form.  Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm
    License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

    1.E.7.  Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,
    performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works
    unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

    1.E.8.  You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing
    access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided
    that

    - You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
         the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method
         you already use to calculate your applicable taxes.  The fee is
         owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he
         has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the
         Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.  Royalty payments
         must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you
         prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax
         returns.  Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and
         sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the
         address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to
         the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation."

    - You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies
         you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he
         does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm
         License.  You must require such a user to return or
         destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
         and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
         Project Gutenberg-tm works.

    - You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any
         money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the
         electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days
         of receipt of the work.

    - You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
         distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works.

    1.E.9.  If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm
    electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
    forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
    both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael
    Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark.  Contact the
    Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

    1.F.

    1.F.1.  Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable
    effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread
    public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm
    collection.  Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
    works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain
    "Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or
    corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual
    property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a
    computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by
    your equipment.

    1.F.2.  LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right
    of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project
    Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project
    Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project
    Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all
    liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
    fees.  YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
    LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
    PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3.  YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
    TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
    LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR
    INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
    DAMAGE.

    1.F.3.  LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a
    defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can
    receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a
    written explanation to the person you received the work from.  If you
    received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with
    your written explanation.  The person or entity that provided you with
    the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a
    refund.  If you received the work electronically, the person or entity
    providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to
    receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund.  If the second copy
    is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further
    opportunities to fix the problem.

    1.F.4.  Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
    in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER
    WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
    WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

    1.F.5.  Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied
    warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
    If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
    law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
    interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by
    the applicable state law.  The invalidity or unenforceability of any
    provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

    1.F.6.  INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the
    trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone
    providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance
    with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production,
    promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works,
    harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees,
    that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do
    or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm
    work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any
    Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

    Section  2.  Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm

    Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of
    electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers
    including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.  It exists
    because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from
    people in all walks of life.

    Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the
    assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's
    goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will
    remain freely available for generations to come.  In 2001, the Project
    Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure
    and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations.
    To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
    and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4
    and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org.

    Section 3.  Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
    Foundation

    The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit
    501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
    state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
    Revenue Service.  The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification
    number is 64-6221541.  Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at
    http://pglaf.org/fundraising.  Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
    Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
    permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws.

    The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S.
    Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered
    throughout numerous locations.  Its business office is located at
    809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email
    business@pglaf.org.  Email contact links and up to date contact
    information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official
    page at http://pglaf.org

    For additional contact information:
         Dr. Gregory B. Newby
         Chief Executive and Director
         gbnewby@pglaf.org

    Section 4.  Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg
    Literary Archive Foundation

    Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide
    spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
    increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be
    freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest
    array of equipment including outdated equipment.  Many small donations
    ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt
    status with the IRS.

    The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating
    charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
    States.  Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
    considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up
    with these requirements.  We do not solicit donations in locations
    where we have not received written confirmation of compliance.  To
    SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any
    particular state visit http://pglaf.org

    While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we
    have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition
    against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who
    approach us with offers to donate.

    International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make
    any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
    outside the United States.  U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

    Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation
    methods and addresses.  Donations are accepted in a number of other
    ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations.
    To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate

    Section 5.  General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic
    works.

    Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm
    concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared
    with anyone.  For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project
    Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

    Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed
    editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S.
    unless a copyright notice is included.  Thus, we do not necessarily
    keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

    Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility:

         http://www.gutenberg.org

    This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm,
    including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
    Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to
    subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.